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Abstract

Marine ecosystems represent an immense and largely untapped reservoir of biologically active compounds with significant therapeutic potential. Owing to extreme environmental conditions, marine organisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, sponges, tunicates, mollusks, and corals produce unique secondary metabolites with diverse chemical structures and potent biological activities. This review highlights the role of marine biodiversity as a promising source of anticancer agents, emphasizing major marine-derived compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, peptides, steroids, and glycosides. Several marine natural products, such as cytarabine, trabectedin, eribulin, and brentuximab vedotin, have already been approved for clinical use, while many others are currently in preclinical and clinical development. The mechanisms of anticancer action of these compounds include induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell proliferation, angiogenesis suppression, immune modulation, and interference with DNA and microtubule dynamics. Despite their immense potential, challenges such as low natural yield, structural complexity, limited technical infrastructure, and high development costs hinder their large-scale application. Nevertheless, advances in biotechnology, synthetic chemistry, and drug delivery systems are paving the way for the successful development of marine-derived anticancer therapeutics, reinforcing the ocean as a valuable frontier for future cancer drug discovery.

Keywords

Marine biodiversity, Marine-derived natural products, Anticancer compounds, Ecosystem, Apopptosis

Introduction

Marine ecosystems are made up of intricate communities of organisms such as bacteria, protozoans, algae, chromists, plants, fungi, and animals. They exist in a restricted space of an aquatic Saline environment: The saline environment constitutes 71% of the earth’s surface and holds 90% of the earth’s biosphere. Marine biotopes possess a highly diverse biodiversity, which is seen as a virtually unlimited source of bioactive compounds [1]. Furthermore, the marine ecosystem is known for being a very challenging severe and exposed to potentially life-threatening environments such as absence of light, absence of nutrients, pH and currents, unstable climate conditions, and attacked by predators. This is why marine organisms. These are the adaptive mechanisms and symbiotic interactions, among others, that have been adopted and result in unexpected biochemical reaction routes with an astonishingly broad spectrum of metabolites, secondary metabolites, and toxins [2]. Natural products are anything that can be made by life, such as biotic": The description given materials, bio-based materials, body fluids (like milk and plant exudates) and other natural materials. Small molecules produced by living organisms such as plants, Invertebrates, and Bacteria: These compounds produced by invertebrates, Though these were not required for life support functions, they were also considered as secondary metabolites and play an important role in defence and cell-to-cell communication. For thousands of years, the natural world has been the provider of medicine, and the efcations that have been obtained from plant materials [3]. Marine life can be contrasted with plants on land and non-marine microbes, marine organisms can be viewed as the most recent source of bioactive natural compounds. In the report by Bergmann and Feeny on the isolation of the novel nucleosides spongouridine and spongo the sponge Cryptotethya crypta, where it acted as lead. The structures for antiviral agents such as Ara-A, marine natural products the chemistry of the product was developed. Prostaglandins were only recently discovered to be significant mediators of the human body, so Wein Heimer and Spragginsthe discovery of pros-taglandins of the Caribbean gorgonian Plexaura hom more than a decade later was an inspiration in the explore new medicines found in the sea. A small sympsium with the grand title Drugs from the Sea was conducted in Rhode Island, USA, in 1967. It is the first academic sympsium on developing drugs from natural ingredients [4].  Among marine organisms, macroalgae are prominent due to their various bioactive producers. compounds that interfere with the course of cancer development via multiple mechanisms [5]. For instance, fucoidan, a sulfated polysaccharide from brown algae, has demonstrated anti-Tumor properties by inhibiting angiogenesis and inducing apoptosis. Other compounds from red and green algae have also been demonstrated to inhibit cell-cycle progression and increase immune responses, which has further supported their potentials in cancer therapy [6,7]. Addition Not to be outdone are sponges, representing another rich source of bioactive compounds and yielding molecules such as Halichondrin B, an inhibitor of cancer cell proliferation that has led to the development of the drugs derived have a very wide application, such as eribulin, which is used for the treatment of breast cancer [8]. Marine fungi contribute considerably to Bioactive pool, especially through the synthesis of secondary metabolites with (immunomodulatory and cytotoxic) effects against tumor cells. [9].  The first exploratory journey on the search of marine bioactive was initiated by Bergmann in the 1950s. Bergmann et al. reported the first discovery of two bioactive nucleosides, spongouridine and spongothymidine, extracted from the sponge Cryptotethia crypta [10]. These nucleosides represented the starting point for the synthesis of Ara-A and Ara-C (or Cytarabine). Importantly, Cytarabine has been the cornerstone treatment for acute myelogenous leukemia for more than thirty years [11,12].

2. Marine Biodiversity as a Source of Anticancer Compounds

Marine flora includes bacteria, actinobacteria, cyanobacteria, and fungi, which are also referred to as microflora are microalgae, macroalgae, mangroves, and other higher plants living in a marine environment. Of note that microflora and microalgae alone account for more than 90% of oceanic biomass [13]. Thus, whereas marine flora represents one of the richest sources of antitumoral drug candidates on this planet, however due to the lack of medical focus and efficient technologies of extraction, the real influence of flora from the sea is relatively unknown when compared with terrestrial sources concerning possibilities in the development of drugs against cancer flora [14] (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Marine natural products as a source of anticancer agents

  1. Fungi

Figure 2: Marine Fungi

Marine fungi can be found in water or marine sediments and are also associated with, for instance, algae. Marine fungi can be detected in aquatic sediments or marine example, microalgae, macroalgae, mangroves, sponges, mollusks, that fungi produce entirely different biologically active compounds based upon their living ecological, physical, and biological factors [15]. In fact, sponges, algae, and mangrove forests are beneficia from fungi and their cytotoxic metabolites to survive in the extreme oceanic environment [16]. The marine endophytic fungi or the internally living fungi in plants have the most effective antitumor activity. Compounds isolated from marine fungi. An example of compounds with high anticancer activity (in the nanomolar concentration region) is found to be compound 4, the disulfide-bridged dike top mangrove endophytic fungus endophytic fungus Penicillium endophyte in cisplatin-sensitive and cisplatin-resistant A2780 human ovarian carcinoma cells [17].

2. Sponges

Figure 3: Marine Sponges

Sponges are known to be a rich source of immunomodulators and anti-Inflammatory, and Anticancer Activities of Pharmaceutical Importance [18]. Several drug “Discovery and development programs are cantered on searching for bioactive compounds “from marine sponges [19]. The first marine-derived drug approved for sale was as Cytosar by Pfizer. Cytosar-U has been marketed with approval from the Food and Drug Administration. It was FDA-approved in 1969 for leukaemia and lymphoma. The active compound, cytarabine, or Ara-C, which is a synthetic analogue of a C-nucleoside isolated from the Caribbean sponge Tethya crypta and able to inhibit the DNA polymerase either by action. Another compound that has been derived from a sponge and is in fact being marketed is Vira-A which was commercialized by Mochida Pharmaceutical Co. In fact, the drug was the "first antiviral (against the herpes simplex virus) marine drug approved by the FDA in 1976 [20]. The active compound is vidarabine, or Ara-A, which was isolated from one type of sponge, T. crypta, and is effective by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase. Other agents were then used in cancer drugs such as Avarol, an hydroquinone sesquiterpenoid extracted from Dysideaavara [21].

3. Microlgae

Figure 4: Marine Microlgae

Microalgae, together with cyanobacteria, is the main constituent of marine phytoplankton comprising more than 30,000 species [22]. Microalgae are eukaryotic which are unicellular organisms that have a wide range of pigments, lipids, carotenoids, omega-3 fatty acids, polysaccharides, and vitamins that These compounds have shown considerable attraction to the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food sectors [23]. Phytochemicals from microalgae are an attractive reservoir for anticancer compounds and display more pronounced biological activities more than those found in earthy plants. Like fungi, microalgae possess the capacity for develop either solely or in combination with other sea organisms and are able to adapt to serious negative The microenvironments or ecosystems are created by producing bioactives neces­sary for survival. Taxonomically, are divided into four chief categories: red, brown, blue-green or cyanobacteria, and green microalgae, based on their own colour. Various microalgae have Freelancer-detected pronounced anticancer properties. The Ideonella in vivo, thereby suggesting a great potential for its clinical applications. One such agent is Astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is a keto-carotenoid that came from green algae Haematococcus pluvialis. This substance has shown anti-proliferative properties on a chemically induced model of colon carcinogenesis on rats [24].

4.Macroalgae

Figure 5: Marine Macroalgae

Macroalgae contain many substances with helpful effects for the human body has been widely shown [25]. It has been shown, for example, that they contain about"60 different elements such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, iron, copper, manganese, Potassium, Vanadium, and Iodine, with advantageous nutritional indexes. The because of the abundance of carotenoids, proteins, dietary fibers, and essential fatty acids in it vitamins (C, D, E, K, and B complex), and minerals [26]. Indeed, in many areas of the world, algae also happen to be an essential component of diets—for example, among Asians [27]. In the Southeast Asia region, seaweed has long been utilized as a food and a ingredient of traditional medicine preparations. The oldest accounts of the consumption of algae as food are for humans is traced back to the fourth century in Japan and the sixth century in China [28]. After that, seaweed has become a food type that currently accounts for as much as 25% of the human diets of other countries like Japan, China, and South Korea. Moreover, parts of North and South America [29] have also increased their use of algae even further, as well as in Europe, particularly in France, Italy, Greece, and Ireland [30].

5.Tunicates

Figure 6: Marine Tunicates

Tunicates are members of the subphylum Tunicata, which takes its name from the word "tunic," which refers to its outer layer of these animals which serves as an exoskeleton. Different species of these subphylums are usually also known by various other names such as ascidians, sea squirts, sea porks, sea livers, and sea tulips. The adult tunicates and are fixed irreversibly on rocks or anchored on the ocean bed. Hence, their survival depends naturally on defense against predators with an arsenal of toxins, from cyclic peptides to aromatic alkaloids, causing various bio functional properties [31]. A number of these compounds are secondary metabolites produced directly or supported by symbiont bacteria, which ensures the defense and survival of their Tunicates hosts [32].

6.Mollusks

Figure 7: Marine Mollusks

Mollusks, also spelled molluscs, refer to invertebrates that feature a soft body It is protected by a shell of calcium carbonate. The Phylum Mollusca, which includes 85,000 species, is a group that divided into two subphyla: the Auculifera, divided into two classes (Aplacophora and Neopla and Polypalcophora), and the Conchifera, which is divided into five Classes, namely: Monoplac These species belong to the following groups: Gastropoda, Cephal [33]. A considerably higher level of potency was observed in rats administered with 10 observed by Satio et al. using the semisynthetic form of Jorumycin, IC50 = 0.57, 0.76, and 0.49 nM in human colon cancer cells (HCT-116), human lung cancer cells (QG-56), and human prostate cancer cells (DU145), respectively [34].

7. Corals

Figure 8: Marine Corals

Another classical source of immunomodulatory drugs is corals. Toward the end of the in the past century, numerous researches were conducted to analyze the chemical composition of the main secretory products of hard corals (Scleractinia) and soft corals (Alcyonacea comprising a mixture of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in varying proportions [35,36]. The Chemical composition of mucus glycoprotein varies from coral to coral [37].

3.Major Classes of Marine-Derived Anticancer Compounds

Marine-derived bioactive compounds can be classified according to their chemical nature and biological activities, emphasis is placed on their general applications. In there shall deal with some examples of such marine-derived bioactive compounds being utilized for cancer treatment.

  1. Alkaloids

Alkaloids from marine resources have displayed considerable anti-cancer properties. Trabectedin, harvested from the sea squirts Ecteinascidia turbunata, has been employed extensively to soft tissue sarcomas [38,39,40]. Another important alkaloid is Variolin, found in the sponge Kirkpatrickia variolosa, exhibits cytotoxic properties against PC cells [41,42]. Debromohymenialdisine, a sponges, efficiently acts on melanoma and prostate cancer by preventing cell proliferation and migration [43]. Fascaplysin, from the sponge Fascaplysinopsis reticcauses cell cycle arrest in breast cancer cells [44–46].

  1. Flavonoids

The marine flavonoids possess anticancer activity as well as antioxidant activity. Apigenin extracted from Chlorella Vulgaris, induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells through cell cycle protein modulation [47,48]. Kaempferol, derived from Scened sp., prevents the migration of cancer cells, especially in breast cancer models [49]. Quercetin It is derived from the organism Synechocystis sp. It acts as an inhibitor of the proliferation of sis expression in breast and colon cancer cells [50,51].

  1. Polysaccharides

Marine polysaccharides have been found to possess strong anti-cancer and immunomodulatory activities immunity-modulating effects. Fucoidan purified from brown algae such as Fucus vesiculosus and Laminaria japonica, cause apoptosis and suppress angiogenesis in breast human cancer cells, lung cancer cells, and colon cancer cells [52,53].  Carrageenan, a as Kappaphycus alvarezii, has cell cycle arrest and apoptosis effects on colorectal and gastric cancer cells [54,55,56].

  1. Terpenoids

Marine terpenoids have shown strong anticancer properties. Farnesene, found in Synechocystis sp., has been reported to possess cytotoxicity against leukemia and breast cancer cells by interfering with cell membranes [57], whereas Geranylgeraniol, derived from the seeds of from Synechococcus elongatus, triggers apoptosis in lung and liver cancer cells [58]. Limonene, found in Lyngbya majuscula, inhibits tumor formation in models of lung cancer [59] and Squalene, derived from Oscillatoria sp., which boosts immune response.  induces apoptosis in melanoma and liver cancer cells [60].

  1. Steroids and Glycosides

The steroids and glycosides derived from marine resources have some promising properties against cancer. The steroids derivedand antimicrobial properties. Astero saponins, obtained from starfish, in indulge in inducing apoptosis in breast cancer cells [61], whereas Echinosides, derived from Holothuria scabra, inhibit fungi pathogens and have anti-cancer activity [62]. Bryostatin 1, a glycoside derived from bryozoans, modulates protein kinase urchins, which exhibits cytotoxic effects on breast and colon cancer cells [63].

  1. Peptides

Marine peptides are another broad group of bioactive peptides that have high anti-anticancer properties. Kahalalide F, isolated from the marine mollusk Elysia rufescens and marine algae Bryopsis sp., has cytotoxic properties towards prostate and Lung cancer cells through cell membrane damage and necrosis-mediated cell death [64]. (S)-Episulosine, a compound extracted from the bivalve Mactromeris apoptosis by interfering with the cytoskeleton of cancer cells [65]. Didemnins, cyclic peptides isolated from the tunicate Trididemnum solidum, which possess antiviral and antic inducing apoptosis by inhibiting protein synthesis [66].

4. Mechanisms of Anticancer Action

1. Microtubule Inhibition

Several marine-derived anticancer compounds exert their effects by disrupting microtubule dynamics, which are essential for mitotic spindle formation and cell division. Agents such as dolastatins, halichondrin B and its analog eribulin bind to tubulin and either inhibit microtubule polymerization or promote abnormal depolymerization. This interference prevents proper chromosome segregation during mitosis, leading to mitotic arrest, typically at the G2/M phase, and ultimately triggers programmed cell death in rapidly dividing cancer cells.

2. DNA Binding and DNA Damage

Marine natural products can directly interact with DNA, causing structural damage that interferes with replication and transcription. Compounds such as trabectedin bind to the minor groove of DNA, inducing helix distortion and DNA strand breaks. This DNA damage activates cellular DNA damage response pathways, including p53 and checkpoint kinases, leading to inhibition of tumor cell proliferation and activation of apoptotic signaling cascades.

3. Induction of Apoptosis and Autophagy

Many marine-derived anticancer agents induce cell death through apoptosis and autophagy. These compounds activate intrinsic (mitochondrial) apoptotic pathways by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS), disrupting mitochondrial membrane potential, and activating caspases. Simultaneously, some agents stimulate autophagic pathways by modulating mTOR and AMPK signaling, leading to excessive self-digestion of cellular components. The combined induction of apoptosis and autophagy enhances the elimination of cancer cells resistant to conventional therapies.

4. Cell Cycle Arrest

Marine anticancer compounds can halt tumor cell proliferation by arresting the cell cycle at specific checkpoints. By regulating cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), and CDK inhibitors such as p21 and p27, these agents block progression through the G0/G1, S, or G2/M phases. Cell cycle arrest allows accumulation of DNA damage and metabolic stress, which ultimately sensitizes cancer cells to apoptosis and reduces tumor growth.

5. Anti-Angiogenic Effect

Certain marine-derived products inhibit tumor angiogenesis, the process by which new blood vessels form to supply nutrients and oxygen to tumors. These agents suppress the expression of pro-angiogenic factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and inhibit endothelial cell proliferation and migration. By disrupting angiogenic signaling pathways, marine compounds effectively starve tumors, limit metastatic potential, and enhance the efficacy of other anticancer treatments.

6. Immune Modulation

Marine natural products also exhibit immunomodulatory effects that enhance anticancer immunity. They can stimulate immune effector cells such as natural killer (NK) cells, cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and macrophages, while reducing immunosuppressive signals within the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, some compounds modulate cytokine production and immune checkpoint pathways, thereby improving immune recognition and destruction of cancer cells (Table 1, 2).

Table 1: Compounds/extracts from marine microorganisms with immunomodulatory activity

Organism

Mechanism of Action

Active Concentration

Reference

Marine fungus

Phoma herbarum YS4108

After 7 days, there was relief in the clinical “Symptoms of mice with colitis, restoration” is of intestinal immune homeostasis, and remission of mucosal damage. YCP suppressed the overexpression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, and IL-1β induced by DSS in the colon.

In vivo: 40 mg/kg

Intraperitoneal injection

[67,68]

Filamentous fungi

Reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNFα and IL-1β.

In vitro: 125 µg/mL

[69]

Microalgae

Docked pro-inflammatory proteins IL-6 with binding energy −7.9 Kcal/mol.

In silico study

[70]

Microalgae

Docked pro-inflammatory protein NF-κB inducing kinase (NIK) with binding energy −9.9 Kcal/mol.

In silico study

[71]

Microalga Porphyridium cruentum

Increase in total hemocytes (THC) value, phagocytotic activity (PA),

and respiratory burst (RB).

Treatment with increasing

concentration of EPS

[72]

Microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Eliciting an inflammatory response with the downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α; activated the host's innate immune cells; increased activity of SOD and CAT in the intestine and erythrocytes in the blood; and the investigators suggested it would also reduce intestinal IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. intestinal expression.

0.6 g β-glucans per kg of feed

[73]

Table 2: Compounds/extracts from marine microorganisms with immunomodulatory activity

Organism

Mechanism of Action

Active Concentration

Reference

Alga: Ulva ohnoi

Increases in IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10; improves LPS-induced inflammation; and a decrease prostaglandin E2.

100 µg/mL in vitro

[74]

Algae: Ecklonia cava, Macrocystis

pyrifera, Undaria pinnatifida, and

Fucus vesiculosus

Increases the production of IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α in MODCs and PBDCs; induces INF-γ production.

100 µg/mL in vitro

[75]

Alga: Gracilaria lemaneiformis

(OVA) immunized mice and in vitro activation system OVA-specific CD4+ T cells;

inhibits the activity of mTOR, glycolysis, cell cycle, and DNA replication

 

[76]

Sponge: Haliclona (Soestellla) sp.

Decrease of immune cells (WBC, lymphocytes, platelets, BMC, and splenocytes) and of the splenocytic index; increase of neutrophil: lymphocyte ratio.

In vivo 15 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg; 5 mg/kg.

[77]

Sponge: Astrosclera willeyana

Inhibition of Cbl-b ubiquitin ligase activity (IC50 values ranging from 18 to 35 µM);

10–50 µM

[78]

Mollusk: Arca subcrenata Lischke

Promotes NO secretion; increases phagocytosis in murine RAW 264.7 macrophages and activation of the TLR4-MAPK/Akt-NF-κB signaling pathway.

In vitro: 250 µg/mL and 500 µg/mL

for 24 h

[79]

Mollusk: Mytilus coruscus

Promotes the abundance of some probiotics in the colon.

In vitro: 300 µg/mL and 600 µg/mL

[80]

Coral: Pseudopterogorgia americana

Induces pro-inflammatory mediator expression in macrophages via ROS-, MAPK-, PKC-α/δ-, and NF-κB-dependent pathways.

In vitro: 10 µg/mL

[81]

Fish: Beleophthalmus pectinirostris

In vivo, reduced tissue bacterial load of mudskipper infected by E. tarda, upregulated the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 TNF-α e IFN-γ), while inhibiting the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and TGF-β) studied in

In vivo: injection of 1.0 µg/g

In vitro: 1.0 µg/mL

[82]

5. Clinically Approved Marine-Derived Anticancer Drugs

Interestingly, over 50% of the drugs approved by the FDA in the 1980s and the 1990s are based on structures that were found from sea life. In addition, most of these marine pharmaceutical medicines have been derived from marine invertebrates such as sponges, tunicates, mollusks, and bryozoans [83,84].

Table 3. Marine compounds approved and included in on-going phase III clinical trials for cancer treatment

Compound Name

Marine Organism

Molecular Target

Cancer Type

Cytarabine

(Ara-C)

Sponge

DNA polymerase

Acute myeloid leukemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Fludarabine

Sponge

DNA polymerase

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and indolent B-cell lymphoma

Nelarabine

(506U78)

Sponge

DNA polymerase

T-cell acute lymphoblastic

leukemia and T-cell

lymphoblastic lymphoma

Trabectedin

(ET-743)

Tunicate

Minor groove of DNA

Soft tissue sarcoma, ovarian cancer

Eribulin mesylate

(E7389)

Sponge

Microtubule

Locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer

Brentuximab vedotin

(SGN-35)

Mollusk and

cyanobacteria

CD30 and

microtubules

Anaplastic large T-cell

malignant lymphoma,

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Plitidepsin

Tunicate

Rac1 and JNK

activation

Multiple myeloma, T-cell lymphoma, leukemia

Polatuzumab vedotin

(DCDS-4501A)

Mollusk and

cyanobacteria

CD79b and

microtubules

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Plinabulin

(NPI-2358)

Fungi

Microtubules and

JNK

Non-small cell lung cancer

Lurbinectedin

(PM01183)

Synthetic form from

tunicate

Minor groove of DNA

Small cell lung cancer

Ovarian cancer

Depatuxizumab mafodotin

(ABT-414)

Mollusk and

cyanobacteria

EGFR and

microtubule

Glioblastoma multiforme

Enfortumab vedotin

(ASG-22ME)

Mollusk and

cyanobacteria

Nectin-4 and

microtubule

Urothelial cancer

Marizomib

(NPI-0052)

Bacteria

20S proteasome

Glioblastoma
  1. Marine Compounds in Clinical and Preclinical Development

 Marine Drugs in Clinical Phase III Trial

1. Eribulin mesylate (E7389) or halichondrin B

It is a polyether macrolide natural compound that was first isolated from marine sponges and has shown strong anti-cancer activity in preclinical models. Eribulin is a strong drug that causes irreversible "antimitotic activity resulting in cell death through the apoptotic pathway [85].

2. Soblidotin (auristatin PE or TZT-1027)

Is a synthetic derivative of the dolastatin backbone derived from the compound dolastatin 10. In addition to the inhibition of tubulin, this compound has avascular disrupting activity resulting in the breakdown of blood vessels inside the tumors. The compound is currently in Phases I, II, and III clinical trials by different companies and aims to be used as a weapon conjugated to specific monoclonal antibodies by peptides [86].

3. Tetrodotoxin

A very well-known "marine toxin," and highly substituted guanidine-derivative.[87] It is not an anti-tumour agent, currently in Phase III trials as analgesic against inadequately controlled pain related to the cancer. A Phase II trial is ongoing to assess the efficacy of tetrodotoxin against the neuropathic pain related to chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy [88].

7. Challenges and Limitations

1. Low Production of Bioactive Compounds

The low natural production of the marine compound by the producer could seriously inhibit its clinical development. This low production is reasonable in the sense that a large proportion of the marine bioactives are synthetized intermittently as a result of environmental changes or predator Attacks. The ways of treatment for this low function are the manipulation of the metabolic conditions or genetic engineering of marine organisms in the laboratory. For example, the impact of the fermentation conditions used by the actinobacteria Salinospora tropica in the study conducted by Potts et al. showed a positive impact onSalinosporamide A produces [89]. They were able to obtain more than 100-fold yield of Salinosporamide A production in the production of bioactive compounds, reaching the yield of 450 mg/L by varying the composition of the culture media [90,91].

  1. Structural Complexity of the Marine Compounds

The great structural diversity of isolated marine bioactive compounds can also be a reason for the failure in synthetic production of such compounds where their complexity results in the mistaken attribution. Of chemical formula, planarity, intra-molecular bonding, or stereocenters [92]. The improvement of advanced analytical and spectroscopic techniques, including nuclear magnetic resonance, has undergone rapid advancements in the past few decades resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS) for de novo assignment of structure, which has enabled This led to new chemical entities being found to be present in low concentrations [93].

  1. Poor Technical Infrastructure

Deep exploration of the marine environment began in the 1970s, when modern snorkeling was invented. And scuba diving was introduced, and later, the use of remotely operated vehicles in the 1990s until today [94,95]. Three common sampling approaches were encountered on the lookout for biologically Bioactive compounds: (i) hitherto unexploited sources of geographical or taxonomic groups; (ii) new taxa and/or areas of proven chemical diversity; or (iii) a combination of both methods [96].

  1. Correct Taxonomic Determination

A number of aquatic organisms are hard to reach and maintain in the lab. Additionally, at times these microorganisms which live inside the marine organism, for instance, in marine sponges, tunicates, which represent the source used in the production of the bioactive compounds instead of the invertebrate marine organisms. Host itself [97,98].

5. Moderate Efficacy

Nanoparticle encapsulation is another method which has been explored to prolong half-life in the circulation, solubility in aqueous environments and tumor targeting, and to decrease the toxicity and immunogenicity of marine drugs, leading to enhanced efficacy in combating cancer. Nanoparticles have been effectively utilized in the production of anticancer have been used to encapsulate a broad array of chemotherapeutic agents and deliver a targeting function to the tumor components. [99-102].

6. High Market Value

The limitation which is mostly ignored during the course of synthesis and development is the The high market value is another important factor regarding the invention of new natural products. These have been well discussed by Martin. And colleagues [103].

8.Future Scope

Marine-derived products hold immense future potential in anticancer drug discovery due to the vast biodiversity of marine ecosystems and the unique chemical structures of marine natural compounds. Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and host a wide variety of organisms such as sponges, tunicates, algae, mollusks, and marine microorganisms that produce bioactive metabolites not found in terrestrial sources. These structurally novel compounds offer new mechanisms of action that can overcome resistance to existing anticancer drugs. Advancements in marine biotechnology, genomics, and metabolomics are expected to accelerate the identification and development of novel anticancer agents. Techniques such as genome mining, metagenomics, and synthetic biology allow researchers to explore previously unculturable marine microorganisms and optimize the production of potent anticancer metabolites. This will address challenges related to sustainable supply and large-scale production of marine-derived compounds. Marine-derived products also show promise in targeted therapy and personalized medicine. Many marine compounds selectively target cancer-specific pathways such as microtubule dynamics, DNA repair mechanisms, epigenetic regulation, and tumor microenvironment modulation. Future research may focus on designing marine-based drug conjugates, antibody–drug conjugates, and nanoparticle-based delivery systems to improve selectivity, reduce toxicity, and enhance therapeutic efficacy. Another important future direction is the use of marine compounds in combination therapy. Marine-derived anticancer agents can be combined with conventional chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or immunotherapy to enhance treatment outcomes, reduce drug resistance, and lower required doses. Their ability to modulate immune responses and inhibit angiogenesis makes them attractive candidates for combination regimens. Finally, marine natural products have significant potential in cancer prevention and chemoprevention. Bioactive compounds from marine algae and microorganisms exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-enhancing properties that may help prevent cancer initiation and progression. Continued interdisciplinary collaboration, regulatory support, and investment in marine drug research will be crucial to translating marine-derived anticancer compounds from bench to bedside.

CONCLUSION:

Marine ecosystems represent an extraordinary and largely untapped reservoir of structurally diverse and biologically potent compounds with significant potential in cancer therapeutics. As highlighted in this review, marine organisms such as sponges, fungi, algae, tunicates, mollusks, and corals have yielded a wide range of anticancer agents belonging to different chemical classes, including alkaloids, peptides, polysaccharides, terpenoids, and steroids. Several of these compounds have already progressed from discovery to clinical approval, underscoring the translational value of marine-derived products in oncology. Despite challenges such as low natural yield, structural complexity, technical limitations, and high development costs, advances in biotechnology, synthetic chemistry, genetic engineering, and drug-delivery systems offer promising solutions. Continued interdisciplinary research and sustainable exploration of marine biodiversity are therefore essential to fully harness the ocean’s potential and to develop novel, effective, and safer anticancer therapies for the future.

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Sunita Kode
Corresponding author

Department of Pharmacology, JES’s SND College of Pharmacy, Babhulgaon (Yeola), India

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Tejswini Gaikwad
Co-author

Department of Pharmacology, JES’s SND College of Pharmacy, Babhulgaon (Yeola), India

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Rashee Shahu
Co-author

Department of Pharmacology, JES’s SND College of Pharmacy, Babhulgaon (Yeola), India

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Shivcharan Kamble
Co-author

Department of Pharmacology, JES’s SND College of Pharmacy, Babhulgaon (Yeola), India

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Pooja Rasal
Co-author

Department of Pharmacology, JES’s SND College of Pharmacy, Babhulgaon (Yeola), India

Sunita Kode*, Tejswini Gaikwad, Rashee Shahu, Shivcharan Kamble, Pooja Rasal, Marine-Derived Products in Oncology: From Ocean Biodiversity to Cancer Therapeutics, Int. J. Sci. R. Tech., 2026, 3 (1), 191-206. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18291225

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