Traditional Uses and Nutritional Properties of Mahua (Madhuca Longifolia): A Multipurpose Tropical Tree Grown by Tribals Of Chhattisgarh State

Abstract

Chhattisgarh, the "heart of India," is renowned for its agriculture, mineral wealth, and vibrant tribal cultures, which remain a focus of regional and global interest. Indigenous communities rely on local resources like Mahua (Madhuca indica), a vital tree offering medicinal benefits such as hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, and wound-healing properties, along with non-medicinal applications like alcohol fermentation, food production, and soap-making. While some of these uses have been explored, many remain underutilized, presenting opportunities for further research and application.The Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) tree, native to South Asia and abundant in Chhattisgarh State, is a valuable resource for its edible flowers and oil-rich seeds. Taking 10 years to mature and producing for up to 60 years, it yields 60–80 kg of seeds and 100–150 kg of flowers annually per tree.The flowers are consumed fresh, dried, or fermented for liquor, while the seeds produce 35–50% oil used in soaps, candles, pest control, and as a laxative or emollient for skin and rheumatism. Traditional medicinal uses include treating ailments like tuberculosis, arthritis, cholera, snake bites, and infections. Mahua seed cake is a protein-rich pond manure in aquaculture but has reduced palatability due to saponins. Additionally, Mahua oil serves as a sustainable source for biodiesel, and the tree supports soil reclamation and erosion control efforts. Its wide applications make it an integral part of traditional and industrial practices. The genus Madhuca, part of the Sapotaceae family, includes species like Madhuca longifolia and Madhuca butyracea. Madhuca longifolia (Mahua) is a large deciduous tree native to India, valued for its flowers and seeds, which provide a livelihood for rural communities. Mahua seeds are a rich oilseed crop, yielding 20–200 kg per tree annually and contributing to 0.5 million tonnes of annual production in southern India. The seeds are high in vegetable fat, and oil extraction is done using commercial screw press expellers. The residual seed cake contains about 30% protein and, after detoxification, serves as a protein source in food and feed. Protein extraction techniques include alkaline extraction, which modifies protein structure under alkaline conditions, and ultrasound extraction, a safe and eco-friendly method using high-frequency mechanical waves. These approaches enhance protein quality for diverse applications.

Keywords

Medicinal plant; Mahua oil; Antioxidant, bio fuels, Hepatoprotective; nutritional properties and uses

Introduction

Health benefits of madhuca

The Madhuca longifolia tree offers remarkable health benefits through its various parts, utilized in traditional medicine:

1. Bronchitis: The flowers are commonly used to treat cough and chronic bronchitis, providing relief from respiratory issues.
2. Orchitis (Testis Inflammation): Boiled Madhuca leaves serve as a soothing remedy for orchitis, reducing inflammation and discomfort.
3. Rheumatism: For relief from rheumatism, a decoction made from boiling the bark in water is consumed internally. Additionally, seed oil, applied topically to affected areas, aids in reducing pain and inflammation.
4. Diabetes: The bark decoction is effective in managing diabetes, showcasing its potential in blood sugar regulation.
5. Piles and Constipation: The oil extracted from seeds acts as a natural laxative, helping to alleviate chronic constipation and piles, making it a valuable resource for digestive health.
6. Eczema: Madhuca leaves, coated with sesame oil and heated over a fire, are applied to affected areas for relief from eczema.
7. Gums: To address spongy and bleeding gums, 4 ml of bark liquid extract is diluted with 300 ml of water and used as a gargle.
8. Tonsillitis: The same gargling preparation used for gum treatment is effective for managing chronic and acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis.
9. Burns: Bark paste, applied locally, helps relieve itching, while ash from the leaves mixed with ghee is used to treat scalds and burns.
10. Lactation: The flowers and seeds of Madhuca possess lactation-enhancing properties, making them valuable for boosting milk production in feeding mothers.

The multifaceted use of Madhuca highlights its role as an important medicinal plant in traditional healing practices.

Pharmacological uses of madhuca

Antioxidant Activity of Madhuca longifolia Free radicals, including active nitrogen and reactive oxygen species, are major contributors to cellular damage, leading to pathological changes and various diseases. Studies have demonstrated that extracts from the Madhuca longifolia tree exhibit substantial antioxidant potential, helping to mitigate such damage.

• Ethanolic Bark Extract: Research by Roy et al. and Agrawal et al. highlights the significant antioxidant properties of the ethanolic extract of Madhuca bark. It effectively prevents lipid peroxidation during in-vivo assessments, which is a critical marker of oxidative damage.
• Leaf Extract: The in-vitro free radical scavenging ability of Madhuca leaves was studied by Palani et al., followed by in-vivo antioxidant evaluation through glutathione. Glutathione, a natural antioxidant in the body, plays a crucial role in reducing oxidative stress, and the extract enhances this protective activity.

These findings underscore the potential of Madhuca longifolia as a natural antioxidant, capable of combating oxidative stress and promoting cellular health. Its applications in reducing free radical damage could pave the way for advancements in therapies for various oxidative stress-related disorders.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Inflammation represents a complex biological response to external stimuli, during which inflammatory leukocytes produce excessive free radicals. These radicals disrupt cellular functions and can lead to organ damage, ultimately promoting and initiating various diseases.

Extensive research has established the anti-inflammatory potential of Madhuca longifolia extracts:

• Ethanolic Extracts: Studies by Agrawal et al. and Gaikwad et al. confirm that crude ethanolic extracts, along with methanolic bark extracts and saponin mixtures, effectively reduce inflammation.
• Carrageenan-Induced Inflammation: These extracts demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects in experimental models of carrageenan-induced swelling, showcasing their ability to counteract inflammation.

This evidence highlights the medicinal potential of Madhuca longifolia as a natural anti-inflammatory agent, valuable for the prevention and treatment of inflammation-related disorders.

Analgesic Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia exhibits significant analgesic properties, mediated through both central and peripheral mechanisms:

• Central Analgesic Activity: Research by Chandra demonstrated that the alcoholic extract of Madhuca flowers shows good analgesic activity using the hot plate and tail flick methods. These studies indicated a dose-dependent efficacy, with remarkable improvement observed at doses ranging from 4–64 mg/kg across all nociceptive methods.
• Peripheral Analgesic Activity: The methanolic extract of Madhuca flowers was found to significantly reduce acetic acid-induced pain in experimental models. At doses of 50–200 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally (i.p.), the extract exhibited potent pain-relief effects in a dose-dependent manner, confirming its peripheral analgesic properties.

These findings underline the potential of Madhuca longifolia as a natural analgesic, providing relief from pain through complementary mechanisms. I

Antipyretic Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Pyrexia, the abnormal elevation of body temperature, is a condition where Madhuca longifolia demonstrates febrifuge (fever-reducing) properties. Studies have shown that the methanolic extract of the aerial parts of Madhuca effectively inhibits the rise in body temperature. In experimental models using Brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia, the extract exhibited significant antipyretic activity in a dose-dependent manner. This suggests that Madhuca could serve as a natural remedy for fever, providing an alternative to synthetic antipyretic medications.

Anti-Ulcer Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Peptic ulcers, characterized by sores in the stomach and duodenum lining, are chronic inflammatory conditions. Experimental studies highlight the anti-ulcer potential of Madhuca longifolia:

• Ethanolic Bark Extract: Research by Kalaivani and Jegadeesan demonstrated significant anti-ulcer effects.
• Aqueous Leaf Extract: Mohod and Bodhankar proved its efficacy in reducing ulcers.
• Ethanolic Seed Extract: It showed notable protective effects in pylorus ligation-induced gastric ulcer models, significantly lowering the ulcer index.
• Immunosuppression by Madhuca longifolia
• The methanolic extract of Madhuca longifolia has demonstrated immunosuppressant activity in murine models. It significantly decreased total WBC and spleen leukocyte counts, indicating suppression of the nonspecific immune system. A notable reduction in relative spleen and thymus weight was also observed, suggesting its potential in managing unwanted immune responses, such as those seen in autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection.

Anti-Hyperglycaemic Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia has shown promising potential for managing diabetes, as demonstrated by several studies:

• Methanolic Bark Extract: Dahake et al. and Seshgiri et al. reported its antidiabetic effects, likely linked to improved glucose utilization.
• Ethanolic Bark Extract: Prashanth et al. confirmed its dose-dependent activity (100–200 mg/kg) against streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats.
• Hydroethanolic Leaf Extract: Ghosh et al. highlighted its effectiveness in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.
• Methanolic and Ethanolic Seed Extracts: Seshgiri et al. found these extracts to exhibit antidiabetic properties.

These effects are thought to stem from altered glucose utilization, improved insulin levels, and interactions with intestinal enzymes, as indicated by in-vitro studies.

Neuropharmacological Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia has shown significant neuropharmacological potential, particularly in its anticonvulsant properties. Studies have revealed that administering its active constituent at a dose of 400 mg/kg results in a notable prolongation of seizure onset and a reduction in seizure duration. This suggests its potential utility in the treatment or management of absence seizures. The anticonvulsant activity is thought to be mediated by specific bioactive compounds inherent to the plant. Additionally, its traditional use as an anti-epileptic agent has been scientifically validated through in-vivo experiments that highlight its efficacy in controlling seizures. These findings confirm the medicinal value of Madhuca longifolia in addressing neurological conditions, specifically in mitigating convulsive disorders.

Anti-Neoplastic Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia exhibits notable anti-neoplastic properties, contributing to cancer prevention and management. Chemoprevention, the use of natural or pharmacological agents to reverse, block, or delay cancer onset, is a key feature of Madhuca's therapeutic potential, with minimal adverse effects aiding in the reduction of cancer-related mortality.

Scientific investigations have demonstrated its chemopreventive action on human cancer cell lines, along with its cytotoxic potential against carcinoma cells. In-vitro cytotoxic assays have confirmed its anticancer efficacy, particularly against Ehrlich ascites and carcinoma cell lines. The crude acetone and ethanolic extracts of Madhuca stem and leaves, at a dose of 200 μg/mL, showed significant cytotoxic effects during in-vitro studies conducted at varying doses. These findings underscore the promise of Madhuca longifolia as a natural agent in cancer prevention and treatment, paving the way for further research and development in oncology.

Antihelminthic Activity of Madhuca longifolia

The antihelminthic properties of Madhuca longifolia have been demonstrated through studies involving its extracts:

• Alcoholic Leaf Extract: When incubated with Ascaridia galli, the extract exhibited significant efficacy.
• Methanolic Extract: Akhil et al. found its anthelmintic activity comparable to the standard drug Piperazine at a dose of 60 mg/mL.

Mechanistically, the extract inhibits glucose uptake, reduces lactic acid content, and lowers glycogen levels in parasites, disrupting their energy metabolism and ATP production. This leads to a loss of motility and eventual elimination of the parasites, showcasing Madhuca longifolia as a promising natural remedy for helminth infections

Hepatoprotective and Nephroprotective Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia exhibits significant hepatoprotective effects, particularly demonstrated in studies using its ethanolic bark extract on D-galactosamine-induced liver hepatitis. The extract significantly reduced serum markers such as glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin levels, indicating its protective action. This hepatoprotective activity is thought to arise from its ability to prevent cellular leakage and maintain the functional integrity of hepatocyte cell membranes, showcasing its therapeutic potential in managing liver conditions. In nephroprotective studies, Madhuca has been explored for its ability to safeguard kidney function, though detailed mechanisms are likely related to similar protective properties against oxidative stress or cellular damage.

Wound Healing Properties of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia demonstrates remarkable wound healing potential, as highlighted by Sharma et al. in their investigation. Compared to standard betadine, the plant's efficacy in promoting wound healing is attributed to its bioactive constituents. In their study, the use of ether-benzene-95% crude ethanolic extracts of Madhuca leaves and bark significantly accelerated the rate of wound closure and epithelialization. The treated group exhibited a marked reduction in wound healing time compared to the control group in excision wound models. These findings suggest that Madhuca plays a crucial role in enhancing tissue repair, making it a promising natural alternative for wound management.

Anti-Fertility Activity of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia demonstrates significant anti-fertility potential, as observed in experimental studies on male albino rats. The administration of crude seed extracts led to a marked reduction in plasma testosterone levels, which, in turn, resulted in a decrease in the weights of reproductive organs, including the testis, epididymis, seminal vesicle, vasa deferens, and ventral prostate. This reduction also extended to the accessory sex organs, where atrophy of glandular tissue and secretory cells was evident, further highlighting the diminished testosterone levels. These observations underscore the effectiveness of Madhuca seed extracts in exhibiting anti-fertility effects, suggesting its potential applications in reproductive health research or contraceptive developments.

Toxicity Profile of Madhuca longifolia

The assessment of Madhuca longifolia's toxicity is crucial due to its use in direct or formulated drug applications. Here's an extended summary:

• Saponins: While saponins exhibit high toxicity upon parenteral administration, they are less harmful when taken orally. The median lethal dose (LD50) for oral administration was determined to be 1000 mg/kg in mice.
• Ethanolic Leaves Extract: Morphological and histopathological changes were observed in male Wistar rats after administering 175 mg/kg for 14 days. However, no toxic effects on liver and kidney were noted up to doses of 2000 mg/kg.
• Methanolic Bark Extract: Reported to be safe up to 2000 mg/kg without causing toxicity.
• Mahua Oil: Studies by the European Food Safety Association indicate that excessive doses may lead to antifertility effects, including testicular atrophy and degenerative changes in rats.
• Genetic Toxicity: To date, no mutagenic or genetic toxicity has been reported in the literature.

This toxicity evaluation highlights the importance of dose management to minimize risks and ensure safe use of Madhuca longifolia.

Non-Medical and Commercial Uses of Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia is recognized for its versatile applications beyond medicinal purposes:

1. Adsorbent Properties: Leaves of Madhuca have been proven to effectively adsorb cadmium and lead from water when used along with polyaniline, showcasing their potential in water purification.
2. Anticorrosive Nature: The leaves protect mild steel from corrosion in 1 mol/L HCl solution, offering utility in industrial applications.
3. Tassar Silk Production: The leaves are used as feed for moth Antheraea paphia, which produces Tassar silk, a commercially valuable wild silk.
4. Distilled Liquor: Flowers are utilized for preparing distilled liquor, reflecting their traditional and cultural significance.
5. Mahua Oil: Extracted from seed kernels, Mahua oil is used for cooking and as a fuel, showcasing its importance in daily and industrial use.

These non-medical uses highlight the economic and practical significance of Madhuca longifolia across various domains.

Preclinical and Clinical Studies on Madhuca longifolia

Madhuca longifolia has been extensively studied in both preclinical and clinical settings to explore its efficacy and safety in various applications:

1. Clinical Trial on Oligospermia: An open clinical trial was conducted on 40 subjects to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Chandrakanthi Chooram, a formulation containing Madhuca flowers among its 25 ingredients. The study focused on improving sperm count, morphology, and motility, with significant outcomes observed.
2. Santhal Tribes Studies: Clinical investigations and surveys on Madhuca among the Santhal tribes revealed its anti-venom activity and benefits in managing dyslipidemia. Regular consumption of Madhuca drink improved blood sugar and lipid profiles in this population.
3. Preclinical Pharmacological Studies: Different parts of Madhuca have been preclinically tested for numerous pharmacological activities, including hepatoprotective, anti-epileptic, antimicrobial, analgesic, and anti-diabetic effects, showcasing its broad therapeutic potential.
4. Kutajarista Research: Kutajarista, an Ayurvedic product containing Madhuca, is used to treat amoebiasis, bacterial dysentery, and blood diarrhea. Preclinical studies on male Sprague Dawley rats, administering Kutajarista at 40 mL/kg, indicated alterations in biochemical profiles when taken in higher doses over extended periods.

These findings highlight the medicinal promise of Madhuca longifolia and its integration into traditional formulations like Chandrakanthi Chooram and Kutajarista, paving the way for further clinical advancements.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION RESULT AND DISCUSSION RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The formulation of Mahua Flower Enriched Wheat-Based Laddoo was optimized using CCRD experimental design and analyzed with a 9-point hedonic scale. Various proportions of dried mahua flower, sugar, germinated wheat flour, millet flour, and ghee were tested across six trials. Sensory attributes like color, texture, flavor, taste, and overall acceptability were evaluated. A quadratic model identified the ideal combination, with T3 containing 9% dried mahua flower and 21% sugar, achieving the best sensory scores. This formulation was finalized for the development of the wheat-based laddoo enriched with mahua flower The Mahua Flower Enriched Wheat-Based Laddoo, prepared using optimized parameters, underwent profiling for physico-chemical, vitamin, mineral, and microbiological properties. The analysis revealed its high nutritional value with moisture (10.36%), protein (13.74%), fat (12.09%), carbohydrates (46.36%), ash (3.09%), crude fiber (2.08%), total sugar (41.29%), and reducing sugar (37.74%). The laddoo's hardness was 175.22 N, showcasing its well-balanced texture and nutrient richness, making it a highly nutritious product The Mahua Flower Enriched Wheat-Based Laddoo was analyzed for vitamin and mineral content, revealing high levels of calcium, iron, and phosphorus. These nutrients make the laddoo particularly beneficial for pregnant and lactating women due to their essential role in supporting health and development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

express gratitude to Dr. Anshu Deep Khalkho Assitent professor Department of Botany Bharti Vishwavidyalalya Durg CG., for providing research facilities and encouragement. Additionally, you thank the University Bharti Vishwavidyalalya Durg CG. In India. Chhattisgarh are gratefully acknowledged for their guidance and support.

CONCLUSION

Madhuca longifolia is an underutilized yet highly versatile plant with significant medicinal and commercial potential. Its flowers are widely used for liquor production, food preparation, and medicinal purposes. Despite its immense nutritional value and therapeutic properties, inadequate knowledge and practices have limited its broader applications.Constituents: Contains sapogenins, triterpenoids, steroids, saponins, flavonoids, and glycosides.Medicinal Uses: Exhibits antibacterial, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antihyperglycemic, analgesic, spasmogenic, oxytocic, anti-implantation, anti-progestational, antiestrogenic, and uterotonic properties.

Traditional Applications: Flowers are used as vegetables, in cakes, as liquor ingredients, and in treating various ailments.Potential and Future DirectionsThe development of modern drugs from Madhuca longifolia is essential, as the shift towards nontoxic plant-based products aligns with its therapeutic and commercial promise. This could enhance employment opportunities and income generation while addressing knowledge gaps through further research into its unexplored pharmacological activities

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