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Department of Pharmacy, Y.N.P College of Pharmacy, Vangoan, Dahanu
Novel medication delivery systems have sparked a renewed interest in drug delivery development. Recently, Ultradeformable Vesicles (UDV) have emerged as a potentially useful technique for the creation of novel and enhanced cutaneous and transdermal treatments. Transferosomes are vesicular carrier systems having an edge activator and at least one inner aqueous compartment surrounded by a lipid bilayer. Vesicular systems have been increasingly popular in recent years as nanocarriers for bioactive substances. These systems' physico-chemical characteristics enable the development of simple nanoscale transporters for medication delivery or food supplements. Ionised chemicals and molecules with molecular weights higher than 500 Da typically cannot pass through the skin. As a result, only a small number of medications can be administered using this method. Transfersome encapsulation of the medications is one possible solution to this issue. Insulin, corticosteroids, proteins and peptides, interferons, anti-cancer medications, anaesthetics, NSAIDs, and herbal medications can all be delivered by transfersomes. Higher trapping efficiency and a depot formation that releases the contents gradually are the main benefits of transfersomes. This review covers the concept of transfersomes, their mode of action, several synthesis and characterisation methods, advantages, and their present applications in transdermal drug delivery.
Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) have revolutionised modern pharmaceutics by improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing adverse effects associated with conventional dosage forms. Oral drug delivery often suffers from first-pass metabolism, enzymatic degradation, and gastrointestinal irritation, while parenteral administration may lead to poor patient compliance and systemic toxicity. To overcome these drawbacks, controlled and targeted drug delivery systems have been developed.
VESICULAR SYSTEM:
Vesicular systems, which are formed when certain amphiphillic building blocks come into contact with water, are incredibly well-organised groupings of one or more concentrated lipid bilayers.[1]Drug administration using vesicles has become the preferred method. Immunology, membrane biology, diagnostic techniques, and, more recently, genetic engineering have all found application for lipid vesicles. Vesicles may play a significant role in the transport and targeting of active ingredients as well as models for biomembranes.[2] Improved site specificity, stability, prolonged release, and enhanced bioavailability and penetration are all provided by vesicular drug delivery methods.[3]
Examples of vesicular systems that are used to increase the therapeutic index of both new and existing pharmacological compounds by encasing an active drug inside a vesicular structure include liposomes, niosomes, sphingosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, and pharmacosomes. After prolonging the duration of the drug's circulation, it reduces its toxicity. Gene delivery, tumour targeting, oral formulations, and medication stability and permeability issues are all common uses for these various systems. A variety of vesicular drug delivery systems, including niosomes, ethosomes, transfersomes, bilosomes, transethosomes, cubosomes, proniosomes, chitosomes, terpesomes, phytosomes, discomes, and spanlastics, can encapsulate hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs.[1,3]
TRANSDERMAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM (TDDS):
Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional routes of administration. A complex method of administering drugs, transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) provide regulated release of therapeutic substances through the skin and into the bloodstream. Transdermal delivery provides sustained plasma drug concentration, bypasses hepatic first-pass metabolism, reduces dosing frequency, and enhances patient compliance.[4]
Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) are becoming an essential part of cutting-edge drug delivery systems. In clinical settings, first-generation transdermal administration methods are increasingly being used to provide small, lipophilic, low-dose medications. To create clinical solutions, second-generation delivery methods such as iontophoresis, chemical enhancers, and non-cavitational ultrasound have also been employed. Transdermal drug delivery systems disperse drugs through the skin to have a systemic effect, as opposed to conventional topical drug administration methods.[5] One of the most successful methods of medicine administration is cutaneous delivery. With a number of benefits over alternative drug delivery methods, the transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) is a novel technique for medication administration in the pharmaceutical industry. Larger dosages and longer regimens are needed for conventional drug delivery system formulations to provide therapeutic results, and prolonged regimens may result in serious side effects and eventually low patient compliance.[6]
In contrast to traditional topical drug administration methods, transdermal medicine delivery systems are utilised to deliver medications via the skin with a systemic effect. A system that continually delivers medication through the skin to the systemic circulation is known as a transdermal medicine delivery system.[5] For transdermal medicines, the goal of lozenge design is to reduce drug retention and metabolism in the skin while simultaneously optimizing flow through the skin into the systemic circulation. This medication delivery method has a number of drawbacks despite these benefits, such as gastrointestinal discomfort, enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract, poor absorption, low bioavailability, etc. Moreover, some medicines are dangerous when taken this way. Needlestick fear is a frequent psychological issue that affects both adults and children when medications are administered parenterally because there is a danger of infection during the procedure.[6] Although the skin is the greatest organ for medication transport and the body's first line of defence, its effectiveness for this purpose is limited by its primary function. The skin's outermost barrier against foreign things, the stratum corneum (SC), stops medications from passing through the skin. When a drug is delivered through the skin, it affects the tissues near the administration site and has an impact on the systemic circulation. There are numerous advantages to transdermal drug administration versus oral and hypodermic injections. Transdermal delivery has had a significant impact on the delivery of many therapeutic drugs, especially in the treatment of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and disorders of the central nervous system.[7]
Dermal penetration of the stratum corneum (SC), the topmost layer of the skin, or hard horny layer, is the primary obstacle for topical treatments. For drug transport via the epidermis, these skin structures serve as a rate-limiting step. The physicochemical characteristics of the drug, such as log P, pKa, solubility, and molecular mass, are additional factors to take into account while delivering drug molecules topically. The size of the API molecules must be less than 500 Da in order for them to diffuse across the SC and penetrate to the site of action when applied topically.[8]
TRANSFERSOMES:
In 1991, Gregor Cevc came up with the term "Transfersome" and its concept. The name Transfersome means a “carrying body” it is derived from the Latin word transferre, meaning to carry across and the Greek word soma, meaning a body. Transfersomes have been defined as specially designed vesicular particles consisting of at least one inner aqueous compartment enclosed by lipid vesicles.[9]
Transferosomes are vesicular carrier systems that are specifically engineered to have an edge activator and at least one inner aqueous compartment surrounded by a lipid bilayer.[10] Most of the time, an effective, successful therapy is not possible for a variety of reasons, including hepatic first-pass metabolism, unfavourable side effects, patient noncompliance, and the rejection of invasive treatments. The skin's outermost layer, known as the stratum corneum, is made up of keratinised, flattened remnants of proliferating epidermal cells. It functions as a strong, flexible membrane and is impermeable to water. A new kind of extremely flexible lipid vesicle called a transferosome has been reported to overcome these problems by penetrating intact skin when administered non-occlusively. Among vesicular carriers, transfersomes represent a unique class of ultra-deformable lipid vesicles that overcome limitations of traditional liposomes by incorporating edge activators (such as surfactants) into the phospholipid bilayer to increase elasticity. Their rapid penetration through the subcutaneous tissue's intercellular lipid route is facilitated by their great deformability.[8,9]
Transferosomes serve as a vehicle for specific transdermal medication delivery. An edge activator and phosphatidylcholine make up these unique kinds of liposomes.[11] This aqueous core surrounded by a lipid bilayer makes ultra-deformable vesicles having both self-optimising and self-regulating capabilities. In accordance with that, transferosomes are elastic in nature and can thereby deform and squeeze themselves as intact vesicles without a measurable loss through narrow pores or constrictions of the skin that are significantly smaller than the vesicle size.[10] Transferosomes can contract and pass through areas five to ten times smaller than their own diameter without experiencing any appreciable loss. Because of its high deformability, intact vesicles can penetrate more successfully. They can carry medications with both low and large molecular weights, including insulin, gap junction protein, analgesics, anesthetics, corticosteroids, sex hormone, anticancer, and albumin.[12] Transfersomes are an exciting breakthrough for improving drug delivery through the skin. What’s fascinating is their ability to squeeze through tiny pores in the stratum corneum that are over ten times smaller than they are. This means that even larger vesicles, around 200–300 nm in size, can easily pass through intact skin.[13] When estimated to be less than 300 nm in size, transferosomes are incredibly ultradeformable vesicles that can smash across the SC and pass through the skin intact. While hydrophobic medications are entrenched within the phospholipid bilayer, hydrophilic pharmaceuticals are contained within the watery middle cavity. Compared to liposomes, transferosomes smaller than 300 nm are more elastic and flexible.[14] The permeation of the drug into the systemic circulation across the skin is allowed through Transdermal delivery, thereby avoiding the first-pass effects of the liver during oral administration. The limitation of this administration is skin permeability to hydrophilic and lipophilic macromolecules.[15]
Medications that are taken orally encounter a hostile environment in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, where the majority of medications undergo degradation under varying pH levels, solubility problems, and—most importantly—first-pass metabolism. The cost, risk of infection, emboli, hypersensitivity reaction, and lack of medication reversal are the drawbacks of parenteral preparation. Certain medications have an extremely bitter taste, which makes them difficult for patients to swallow when taken orally and causes discomfort when administered parenterally due to the needle. Due to the many benefits of topical drug delivery, there has been a lot of attention paid to this research during the past few decades. An average adult's skin has a surface area of around 2 m² and weighs 3 kg. It receives almost one-third of the blood that circulates throughout the body. In a transdermal drug delivery system, the skin is utilised as a possible channel for the delivery of medications with systemic activity. Topical drug delivery refers to the application of a drug to the skin for a localised effect. One system with a high rate of patient compliance is TDDS. The transdermal route may have some advantages over other traditional routes, including avoiding first-pass metabolism as with oral and parenteral routes, minimising unwanted side effects, avoiding fluctuations in drug levels, improving physiological and pharmacological response, and avoiding inter- and intra-patient variations.[16]
These systems include liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, invasomes, and transfersomes and are widely studied for their ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs while enhancing bioavailability and minimising systemic side effects. The development of these carriers has significantly advanced drug administration strategies, particularly for routes where physiological barriers limit absorption, such as transdermal delivery.[10] Although niosomes are more stable than liposomes, their penetration capacity has been linked to a lower flux across the stratum corneum. Compared to liposomes and niosomes, transferosomes are shown to have superior colloidal stability (without aggregation) in liquid media for up to three months at both 4 and 25 degrees Celsius.[14]
Transfersomes address these limitations through their deformable nature and osmotic gradient–driven transport mechanism, enabling deeper penetration of therapeutic agents into or across the skin.[8,10] Furthermore, transfersomes have demonstrated broad applicability in delivering a variety of therapeutic categories such as NSAIDs, peptides, proteins, insulin, corticosteroids, and anticancer agents, making them versatile platforms for topical and systemic delivery.[8,17] Drug delivery systems are crucial in the development and administration of pharmaceuticals, with the aim of achieving a safe and effective therapeutic response. The design and development of drug delivery systems has been an area of reducing toxicity and increasing patient compliance.[16] The skin is the largest organ in the human body, with a surface area of approximately 2m2. The skin provides the largest boundary between the body and the external environment, acts as a major target as well as a principal barrier for topical and transdermal drug delivery. The major functions of the skin are protecting the organism against environmental factors, regulating temperature, and entry and exit of material and water loss from the body. It is an efficient barrier against microorganisms, toxic substances, and UV radiation.[18]
Transdermal drug delivery is difficult since the skin is a natural barrier with a relatively poor penetration rate. The range of molecules that can reach therapeutic levels at their target site after application to the skin is severely limited by the effective barrier properties of intact skin, which are mostly associated with the stratum corneum, the outermost layers of the epidermis. Despite this limiting factor, this route of administration has several benefits. For example, it avoids the factors that could affect gastrointestinal absorption, such as pH, food intake, and gastrointestinal motility; it also avoids hepatic metabolism, making it appropriate for medications with low bioavailability and can provide a consistent, regulated drug input, which lowers drug plasma level fluctuations and, thus, lessens adverse effects, especially for medications with a limited therapeutic window. Using a range of transdermal therapeutic systems, transdermal drug delivery for systemic effect has been developed and is currently available to treat a number of diseases, including skin cancer, female sexual dysfunction, postmenopausal bone loss, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, depression, anxiety, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as well as cardiovascular diseases. Numerous strategies have been used to address the permeation issue related to this path.[17]
COMPOSITION OF TRANSFERSOMES:
Unlike conventional liposomes, which are made up of natural (egg phosphatidylcholine) or synthetic (dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine) phospholipids, modified liposomal vesicular systems (transfersomes) is made up of the phospholipid constituent and a single-chain surfactant. Edge activators work exceptionally well as membrane- destabilising factors to increase the deformability of vesicle membranes and, when combined in the proper proportion with a suitable lipid, try to create the ideal mixture, making transfersomes ultra-flexible and malleable, increasing permeation capacity. As a result, transfersomes overcome the major disadvantages of ordinary liposomes and can enter pores much smaller than their own diameters. The transfersomes also maintained their diameters against fragmentation as they moved through the smaller holes. The use of Edge activators in the transfersome formulation results in better performance as compared to standard liposomes. The efficiency of drug trapping in transfersomal formulations is increased by the use of edge activators in the solubility of hydrophobic medicines. Likewise, Edge activators can solubilise and fluidise skin lipids, resulting in higher skin penetration. The action of edge activators in skin permeation is determined by their type and concentration. Surfactants are just one type of chemical that acts as an edge activator and penetration enhancer. They're amphiphilic composites composed of a lipophilic alkyl chain linked to a hydrophilic head group. In general, anionic surfactants are more effective than cationic surfactants in accelerating skin penetration, and the critical micelle concentration is lower, but non-ionic surfactants with an uncharged polar head group are more tolerated than cationic and anionic surfactants.[19,20]
Table no.1: Different additives used in the formulation of transfersomes
|
Ingredient |
Example |
Use |
|
Phospholipids |
Soya phosphatidylcholine, egg phosphatidylcholine |
Vesicles forming component |
|
Surfactant |
Sod.cholate, Sod. deoxycholate, Tween-80, Span-80 |
Providing flexibility |
|
Alcohol |
Ethanol, methanol |
Solvent |
|
Buffering agent |
Saline phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) |
Hydrating medium |
MECHANISM OF ACTION:
Vesicles, sometimes referred to as colloidal particles, are composed of amphiphilic molecules and are an aqueous compartment surrounded by a concentric bilayer. They are highly effective as vesicular drug delivery systems because they carry hydrophilic medications that are enclosed in the inner aqueous compartment, while hydrophobic medications are confined in the lipid bilayer.[10] By squeezing through the oil found in the stratum corneum cells, transfersomes guarantee entry through the skin. This is made feasible by the vesicle's capacity for significant deformation, which creates the mechanical tension required to penetrate the skin.[20] Transferosomes can transfer 0.1 mg of lipid per hour and square centimetre across undamaged skin when used under the right conditions. This value is far greater than what is usually caused by the gradients in transdermal concentration. This increased flow rate is caused by "transdermal osmotic gradients," which are naturally occurring gradients across the skin that are much more noticeable. Water loss through the skin is stopped by this osmotic gradient created by the skin penetration barrier, which also keeps the water activity difference in the viable portion of the epidermis.[21] Through transfersomes vesicles, the transdermal water activity difference—which results from the natural transdermal gradient—creates a very strong force that acts on the skin, forcing intercellular junctions to widen with the least amount of resistance and creating transcutaneous channels that are 20–30 nm wide. Ultra-deformable, slimed transfersomes can be transferred across the skin in relation to the moisture gradient, thanks to these newly formed channels.[10]
The process of improving the transport of active ingredients into and through the skin is currently poorly understood. There are two suggested methods of action:[21]
Transfersomes are able to enter the target areas, such as the dermis and blood circulation, by passing through the stratum corneum. The transfersomal membrane's deformability, which is related to the vesicle compositions, determines their penetrating capacity.[10]
METHOD OF PREPARATION:
The Bangham method, often referred to as thin-film hydration, was the initial method used to produce liposomes.[22] The thin-film hydration approach can be used to prepare transfersomes.[13] In a round-bottom flask, phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine and edge activators (Tween 80, span 80, etc.) are dissolved in chloroform or a 3:1 chloroform–methanol mixture. A rotary evaporator is used to remove the organic solvent from the mixture, leaving a thin layer on the inside surface of the flask.[23] A vesicle suspension is then formed once the lipids are hydrated using an aqueous or phosphate buffer solution containing the hydrophilic medication.[22] To create tiny vesicles, the resultant vesicles are inflated at room temperature and sonicated in a bath or probe sonicator. Extrusion across a sandwich of 200 nm to 100 nm polycarbonate membranes homogenises the sonicated vesicles.[10]
The phospholipid, edge activator, and lipophilic medication are dissolved in ethanol with magnetic stirring for the appropriate amount of time, until a clear solution is achieved, to create the organic phase.[10] In the meantime, an aqueous phase is prepared by dissolving water-soluble materials in a phosphate buffer. Both solutions are heated to between 45 and 50 degrees Celsius. Following the preparation of the aqueous and organic phases, the organic phase was gradually added to the aqueous phase while being constantly stirred.[9,23] Transferring the resulting dispersion into a vacuum evaporator and sonicating it to reduce particle size is how ethanol is removed.[10]
A round-bottom flask is filled with the phospholipids and edge activator, which are then dissolved in the mixture of organic solvents. In this phase, the lipophilic medication can be added. The lipid films are then obtained by employing a rotary evaporator to evaporate the solvent. Following the re-dissolution of the lipids in the organic phase to create inverted micelles, the drug-containing aqueous solving is added while the system is sonicated and maintained in a nitrogen atmosphere. After the mixture is evaporated to eliminate any remaining organic solvent, the system first takes on the form of a gel structure before collapsing to produce the suspension. Since a lot of solvent is utilized in this process, the issue of residual solvent in the suspension is very pertinent.[10,13,23]
In a phosphate buffer, the medication, edge activator, and phospholipids are combined. After that, the mixture is vortexed to produce a milky transfersomal suspension. After that, it is sonicated for the appropriate amount of time at room temperature using a bath sonicator before being extruded through polycarbonate membranes.[13]
EVALUATION PARAMETER:
The Malvern Zeta sizer's Dynamic Light Scattering technology was used to measure vesicle size, size distribution, and zeta potential. One of the crucial factors in transfersome preparation, batch-to-batch comparison, and scale-up procedures is vesicle size. Changes in vesicle size during storage are a significant factor in the formulation's physical stability. A dynamic light scattering device and particle size analysis will be used to determine the zeta potential and particle size at 250 C. A Malvern Zeta sizer manufactured in the UK is used to measure the generated sample after it has been diluted with filtered water.
In the case of transfersomes, the permeability study is one of the important and unique parameters for characterisation. Fluorescence microscopy is generally used to assess the penetration ability of transferosomes. The transferosome mixture is transferred through numerous Filters with pore diameters ranging from 50 to 400 nm. Dynamic light scattering is recognised to determine particle Size distribution in vesicles contracted to every filter. The Following formula can be used to determine Deformability D=J(rv/rp). So, 5 min suspension extruded = J, rv = Vesicle size, rp = barrier pore size.
A nephelometer can be used to measure the turbidity of a medication in an aqueous solution.
Zetasizer is used to determine the surface charge and charge density of Transferosomes. The size and structure of the vesicles over time may be used to assess the vesicles stability, and HPLC or Spectrophotometric techniques can be used to measure drug content. It is possible to assess drug release in vitro using a diffusion cell or a dialysis technique.
With an accelerating voltage of 100 kV, transfersome vesicles can be seen using Transmission Electron Microscopy. TEM was used to determine the surface morphology; for TEM, a drop of After 15 minutes, the sample was put on a copper grid covered in carbon. was dyed negatively using a 1% phosphotungustic acid aqueous solution. The grid was left to dry in the air. Samples were examined in great detail using a transmission electron microscope (TEM Hitachi, H-7500 Tokyo, Japan). The size and shape of the vesicles were tracked throughout time to evaluate their stability. DLS was used to measure the mean size, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to see any structural alterations.
Blocking transfersomes through the skin is thought to improve medication absorption. The primary source of vesicles penetrating the skin is hydro taxis, or water movement. Occlusion prevents the skin's water from evaporating. The essential Driving Hydrotaxis is the mechanism by which vesicles penetrate the skin. Because it keeps water from evaporating from the skin, it affects hydration forces.
UV, HPLC, or any other instrument can be used to determine the drug content of transfersomes and transfersomal gel. The drug content must be processed by calculating the drug using the proper analytical methods and translating the equivalent weight to a single unit dose.
The quantity of drug trapped in the formulation is known as the entrapment efficiency (%EE). The unentrapped medication is separated from the vesicles using a variety of methods, including mini-column centrifugation, to determine the EE. usually stated as a percentage of drug entrapment. Using the Minicolumn centrifugation process, the unentrapped medication was first separated. The vesicles were then broken up using either 50% n-propanol or 0.1% Triton X-100. The expression for the trapping efficiency is:
Entrapment efficiency = (Amount entrapped/Total Amount added) × 100
A scientific approach to optimising the transfersomal formulation is made possible by the in vitro drug release profile, which can offer basic information about the formulation design as well as specifics about the release mechanism and kinetics. Usually, transfersomes' in vitro drug release is assessed in contrast to the reference product or the free medication. It is clear that a number of studies have successfully produced information about the drug release characteristics of created transfersome formulations. Transferosome dissolution is heated to 32 degrees Celsius using a cellophane membrane. Periodically, this process should be discussed.
Samples from the selected formulas were stored at 4°C and 25°C in firmly sealed, clean, amber-coloured glass containers. We examined the impact of storage on the selected formulas' stability.
After determining the initial amount of medication trapped in the formulation, it was stored in glass ampoules that were sealed. For a minimum of three months, the ampoules were kept at 4 ± 2°C, 25 ± 2°C, and 37 ± 2°C. After 30 days, samples from each ampoule were examined to see if any medications had leaked. The percentage of drug loss was computed by maintaining the initial drug entrapment at 100%. The International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines state that the general case for the storage condition under the stability testing of new drug substances and products is 25 ± 2◦C/60% relative humidity (RH)± 5% RH or 30 ± 2◦C/65% RH ± 5% for 12 months, and 40 ± 2◦C/75% RH ± 5% for six months for accelerated testing. Long-term storage at 5 ± 3 ◦C for 12 months and an accelerated study at 25 ± 2 ◦C/60% RH ± 5% RH for six months are recommended for drug items meant for refrigeration.
Using samples of the formulas kept at 4°C and 25°C, the amount of SC entrapped in each formula was measured spectrophotometrically every month for three months.Nine Outcomes A kinetics research was conducted on the drug content measurements. to ascertain the SC degradation rate constants at the two storage temperatures. The acquired degradation rate constants at 4°C and 25°C were subjected to the Arrhenius equation. The degradation rate constant at 20°C and the associated activation energy (Ea) might be ascertained by knowing the SC degradation rate constants at these temperatures. The time needed to degrade 50% of the initial quantity of SC (t50) and 10% of the initial amount of SC (t90) was calculated using the previously indicated values. The latter shows when each of the chosen formulas expires.
ADVANTAGES:
LIMITATIONS:
APPLICATIONS:
frequently result in a range of gastrointestinal adverse effects. Using transfersomes for transdermal administration is one method to lessen these problems. Ketoprofen and diclofenac have been studied. This vesicular colloidal nanocarrier was authorised by the Swiss Regulatory Agency to encapsulate ketoprofen.
Transfersome technology has been tested for transdermal administration of anti-cancer medications such as methotrexate. The outcomes were positive. This offered a novel method of treatment, particularly for skin cancer.
The demand for cosmetics is steadily rising on a global scale as people strive to appear better and avoid skin harm. Cosmetics have both therapeutic and aesthetic benefits.
When given topically, transfersomes can have anaesthetic effects for less than ten minutes. Compared to subcutaneous bolus injections, the effects of transfersomal anaesthetics last longer.
Immunomodulators, interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-α, were successfully synthesised into transfersomes, and it was found that both molecules kept their biological function and could be effectively enclosed in carriers.
CONCLUSION
A significant advancement in transdermal drug delivery, transfersomes provide an improved substitute for conventional vesicular systems such as liposomes. They can pass through skin pores that are far smaller than their own diameter due to their special ultra-deformability, which is made possible by the addition of "edge activators" (surfactants) to the lipid bilayer. This adaptability makes it possible to transmit a variety of therapeutic agents across the stratum corneum with great efficiency and little drug loss, including big, complicated molecules like insulin, proteins, and peptides. As a result, it works as an effective drug carrier, making targeted drug delivery possible without the need for invasive methods while ensuring a slow and steady release of therapeutic agents.
REFERENCES
Sejal R. Dalvi*, Yash A. Kini, Sanam V. Mestry, Riya Thakur, Ishan A. Jha, Dejay M. Banerjee, Samali S. Raut, Transfersomes: Ultra Deformable Vesicles For Enhanced Transdermal Drug Delivery, Int. J. Sci. R. Tech., 2026, 3 (5), 683-693. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20286389
10.5281/zenodo.20286389